What's the remainder if $99{,}999^{99}$ is divided by $999{,}999$?











up vote
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What's the remainder if $99{,}999^{99}$ is divided by $999{,}999$?



Is there any formula or trick method to achieve this?
Also kindly ignore the improper use of tag as i don't know which tag to choose










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  • Hint: relabel $999999$ as $x$. What's the remainder after division?
    – John Douma
    Nov 21 at 20:58








  • 1




    Computer says 123579, but I don't see elegant trick besides laboriously doing square-and-multiply
    – Hagen von Eitzen
    Nov 21 at 21:07










  • @JohnDouma: I don't get it.
    – TonyK
    Nov 21 at 23:21










  • @Hagen Your hardware is consistent with my wetware - see my answer.
    – Bill Dubuque
    Nov 21 at 23:34










  • @TonyK I misread the question. I thought both numbers consisted of six $9$s.
    – John Douma
    Nov 21 at 23:39















up vote
4
down vote

favorite
1












What's the remainder if $99{,}999^{99}$ is divided by $999{,}999$?



Is there any formula or trick method to achieve this?
Also kindly ignore the improper use of tag as i don't know which tag to choose










share|cite|improve this question
























  • Hint: relabel $999999$ as $x$. What's the remainder after division?
    – John Douma
    Nov 21 at 20:58








  • 1




    Computer says 123579, but I don't see elegant trick besides laboriously doing square-and-multiply
    – Hagen von Eitzen
    Nov 21 at 21:07










  • @JohnDouma: I don't get it.
    – TonyK
    Nov 21 at 23:21










  • @Hagen Your hardware is consistent with my wetware - see my answer.
    – Bill Dubuque
    Nov 21 at 23:34










  • @TonyK I misread the question. I thought both numbers consisted of six $9$s.
    – John Douma
    Nov 21 at 23:39













up vote
4
down vote

favorite
1









up vote
4
down vote

favorite
1






1





What's the remainder if $99{,}999^{99}$ is divided by $999{,}999$?



Is there any formula or trick method to achieve this?
Also kindly ignore the improper use of tag as i don't know which tag to choose










share|cite|improve this question















What's the remainder if $99{,}999^{99}$ is divided by $999{,}999$?



Is there any formula or trick method to achieve this?
Also kindly ignore the improper use of tag as i don't know which tag to choose







elementary-number-theory modular-arithmetic






share|cite|improve this question















share|cite|improve this question













share|cite|improve this question




share|cite|improve this question








edited Nov 22 at 0:01









Barry Cipra

58.5k652122




58.5k652122










asked Nov 21 at 20:56









Girish venkata

212




212












  • Hint: relabel $999999$ as $x$. What's the remainder after division?
    – John Douma
    Nov 21 at 20:58








  • 1




    Computer says 123579, but I don't see elegant trick besides laboriously doing square-and-multiply
    – Hagen von Eitzen
    Nov 21 at 21:07










  • @JohnDouma: I don't get it.
    – TonyK
    Nov 21 at 23:21










  • @Hagen Your hardware is consistent with my wetware - see my answer.
    – Bill Dubuque
    Nov 21 at 23:34










  • @TonyK I misread the question. I thought both numbers consisted of six $9$s.
    – John Douma
    Nov 21 at 23:39


















  • Hint: relabel $999999$ as $x$. What's the remainder after division?
    – John Douma
    Nov 21 at 20:58








  • 1




    Computer says 123579, but I don't see elegant trick besides laboriously doing square-and-multiply
    – Hagen von Eitzen
    Nov 21 at 21:07










  • @JohnDouma: I don't get it.
    – TonyK
    Nov 21 at 23:21










  • @Hagen Your hardware is consistent with my wetware - see my answer.
    – Bill Dubuque
    Nov 21 at 23:34










  • @TonyK I misread the question. I thought both numbers consisted of six $9$s.
    – John Douma
    Nov 21 at 23:39
















Hint: relabel $999999$ as $x$. What's the remainder after division?
– John Douma
Nov 21 at 20:58






Hint: relabel $999999$ as $x$. What's the remainder after division?
– John Douma
Nov 21 at 20:58






1




1




Computer says 123579, but I don't see elegant trick besides laboriously doing square-and-multiply
– Hagen von Eitzen
Nov 21 at 21:07




Computer says 123579, but I don't see elegant trick besides laboriously doing square-and-multiply
– Hagen von Eitzen
Nov 21 at 21:07












@JohnDouma: I don't get it.
– TonyK
Nov 21 at 23:21




@JohnDouma: I don't get it.
– TonyK
Nov 21 at 23:21












@Hagen Your hardware is consistent with my wetware - see my answer.
– Bill Dubuque
Nov 21 at 23:34




@Hagen Your hardware is consistent with my wetware - see my answer.
– Bill Dubuque
Nov 21 at 23:34












@TonyK I misread the question. I thought both numbers consisted of six $9$s.
– John Douma
Nov 21 at 23:39




@TonyK I misread the question. I thought both numbers consisted of six $9$s.
– John Douma
Nov 21 at 23:39










2 Answers
2






active

oldest

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up vote
2
down vote













$!bmod 999999!:, 10cdot99999equiv -9 $ so $ 99999 equiv -9/10$



Thus $,99999^{large99}equiv -9^{large 99}/10^{large 99}equiv -9^{large 99}/10^{large 3}equiv -10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 99} $ via $ 10^{large
6}equiv 1$



$n := 999999/27 = 7cdot 11cdot 13cdot 37.,$ mod each $p,,$ $9,$ has order $,3,5,3,9,$ so $,9^{large color{#c00}{45}}equiv 1pmod{!n}$



so $ 9^{large 99}!bmod 999999 = 27(3cdot 9^{large color{#c00}{97}}!bmod n) = 27(3cdot 9^{large 7}!bmod n) equiv 9^{large 9}!pmod{!999999}$



Hence we conclude $ 99999^{large 99}equiv -10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 99}equiv {-}10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 9}equiv 123579,pmod{!999999}$






share|cite|improve this answer























  • Due to $999999$ isn't a prime number you should say that $10$ has an inverse because it's coprime with $999999$.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:51










  • Then you can't arbitrarly pass from mod $999999$ to mod $n$.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:52










  • He's using the Chinese remainder theorem there. It's clear that $99999^{99} equiv 0 bmod 27$.
    – Qiaochu Yuan
    Nov 21 at 22:53










  • @PDeDonato That's obvious: $bmod 10^6-1!:, 10cdot 10^5equiv 1 $ so $10^{-1}equiv 10^5 $
    – Bill Dubuque
    Nov 21 at 22:54












  • I know it, but the answer isn't so clear.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:56


















up vote
2
down vote













We work in the ring $R=Bbb Z/N$, with operation modulo $N=999999=10^6-1$.
(Equalities below address computations in $R$.)
Then
$$
begin{aligned}
99999^{99}
&=(99999-999999)^{99} =(-900000)^{99}=-9^{99}cdot (10^5)^{99}\
&=-3^{198}cdot 10^{495}=-3^{198}cdot {underbrace{(10^6)}_{=1}}^{82}cdot 10^3=-3^{198}cdot 1000 .
end{aligned}
$$

Now the order of (the unit) $3$ in the ring



$Bbb Z/37037
=Bbb Z/(7cdot 11cdot 13cdot 37)
cong
(Bbb Z/7)times
(Bbb Z/11)times
(Bbb Z/13)times
(Bbb Z/37)
$



is $90$, but we need only the simpler information that $3^{180}$ is one modulo $37037$. This is so because $180$ is a multiple of $(7-1)$, $(11-1)$, $(13-1)$, and $(37-1)$. So instead of $3^{198}$ we write the smaller power $3^{18}=387420489$.



We finally search for a number which is $0$ modulo $27$, and also $-387420489000$ modulo $37037$, which is $12468$. After rearrangements modulo $3,9,27$ we get the result
$$123579 .$$





Note: A computer algebra system like sage delivers immediately



sage: Zmod(999999)(99999)^99
123579





share|cite|improve this answer





















  • This is essentially the same as my answer, except I used the mod distributive law form of CRT (which makes it simpler).
    – Bill Dubuque
    Nov 22 at 0:45












  • I committed it now after typing in the train... Yes, same computation.
    – dan_fulea
    Nov 22 at 0:50










  • Thank you very much, it took some time but i eventually understood
    – Girish venkata
    Nov 26 at 18:12











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2 Answers
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up vote
2
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$!bmod 999999!:, 10cdot99999equiv -9 $ so $ 99999 equiv -9/10$



Thus $,99999^{large99}equiv -9^{large 99}/10^{large 99}equiv -9^{large 99}/10^{large 3}equiv -10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 99} $ via $ 10^{large
6}equiv 1$



$n := 999999/27 = 7cdot 11cdot 13cdot 37.,$ mod each $p,,$ $9,$ has order $,3,5,3,9,$ so $,9^{large color{#c00}{45}}equiv 1pmod{!n}$



so $ 9^{large 99}!bmod 999999 = 27(3cdot 9^{large color{#c00}{97}}!bmod n) = 27(3cdot 9^{large 7}!bmod n) equiv 9^{large 9}!pmod{!999999}$



Hence we conclude $ 99999^{large 99}equiv -10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 99}equiv {-}10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 9}equiv 123579,pmod{!999999}$






share|cite|improve this answer























  • Due to $999999$ isn't a prime number you should say that $10$ has an inverse because it's coprime with $999999$.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:51










  • Then you can't arbitrarly pass from mod $999999$ to mod $n$.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:52










  • He's using the Chinese remainder theorem there. It's clear that $99999^{99} equiv 0 bmod 27$.
    – Qiaochu Yuan
    Nov 21 at 22:53










  • @PDeDonato That's obvious: $bmod 10^6-1!:, 10cdot 10^5equiv 1 $ so $10^{-1}equiv 10^5 $
    – Bill Dubuque
    Nov 21 at 22:54












  • I know it, but the answer isn't so clear.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:56















up vote
2
down vote













$!bmod 999999!:, 10cdot99999equiv -9 $ so $ 99999 equiv -9/10$



Thus $,99999^{large99}equiv -9^{large 99}/10^{large 99}equiv -9^{large 99}/10^{large 3}equiv -10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 99} $ via $ 10^{large
6}equiv 1$



$n := 999999/27 = 7cdot 11cdot 13cdot 37.,$ mod each $p,,$ $9,$ has order $,3,5,3,9,$ so $,9^{large color{#c00}{45}}equiv 1pmod{!n}$



so $ 9^{large 99}!bmod 999999 = 27(3cdot 9^{large color{#c00}{97}}!bmod n) = 27(3cdot 9^{large 7}!bmod n) equiv 9^{large 9}!pmod{!999999}$



Hence we conclude $ 99999^{large 99}equiv -10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 99}equiv {-}10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 9}equiv 123579,pmod{!999999}$






share|cite|improve this answer























  • Due to $999999$ isn't a prime number you should say that $10$ has an inverse because it's coprime with $999999$.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:51










  • Then you can't arbitrarly pass from mod $999999$ to mod $n$.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:52










  • He's using the Chinese remainder theorem there. It's clear that $99999^{99} equiv 0 bmod 27$.
    – Qiaochu Yuan
    Nov 21 at 22:53










  • @PDeDonato That's obvious: $bmod 10^6-1!:, 10cdot 10^5equiv 1 $ so $10^{-1}equiv 10^5 $
    – Bill Dubuque
    Nov 21 at 22:54












  • I know it, but the answer isn't so clear.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:56













up vote
2
down vote










up vote
2
down vote









$!bmod 999999!:, 10cdot99999equiv -9 $ so $ 99999 equiv -9/10$



Thus $,99999^{large99}equiv -9^{large 99}/10^{large 99}equiv -9^{large 99}/10^{large 3}equiv -10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 99} $ via $ 10^{large
6}equiv 1$



$n := 999999/27 = 7cdot 11cdot 13cdot 37.,$ mod each $p,,$ $9,$ has order $,3,5,3,9,$ so $,9^{large color{#c00}{45}}equiv 1pmod{!n}$



so $ 9^{large 99}!bmod 999999 = 27(3cdot 9^{large color{#c00}{97}}!bmod n) = 27(3cdot 9^{large 7}!bmod n) equiv 9^{large 9}!pmod{!999999}$



Hence we conclude $ 99999^{large 99}equiv -10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 99}equiv {-}10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 9}equiv 123579,pmod{!999999}$






share|cite|improve this answer














$!bmod 999999!:, 10cdot99999equiv -9 $ so $ 99999 equiv -9/10$



Thus $,99999^{large99}equiv -9^{large 99}/10^{large 99}equiv -9^{large 99}/10^{large 3}equiv -10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 99} $ via $ 10^{large
6}equiv 1$



$n := 999999/27 = 7cdot 11cdot 13cdot 37.,$ mod each $p,,$ $9,$ has order $,3,5,3,9,$ so $,9^{large color{#c00}{45}}equiv 1pmod{!n}$



so $ 9^{large 99}!bmod 999999 = 27(3cdot 9^{large color{#c00}{97}}!bmod n) = 27(3cdot 9^{large 7}!bmod n) equiv 9^{large 9}!pmod{!999999}$



Hence we conclude $ 99999^{large 99}equiv -10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 99}equiv {-}10^{large 3}cdot 9^{large 9}equiv 123579,pmod{!999999}$







share|cite|improve this answer














share|cite|improve this answer



share|cite|improve this answer








edited Nov 22 at 0:39

























answered Nov 21 at 22:35









Bill Dubuque

207k29189624




207k29189624












  • Due to $999999$ isn't a prime number you should say that $10$ has an inverse because it's coprime with $999999$.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:51










  • Then you can't arbitrarly pass from mod $999999$ to mod $n$.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:52










  • He's using the Chinese remainder theorem there. It's clear that $99999^{99} equiv 0 bmod 27$.
    – Qiaochu Yuan
    Nov 21 at 22:53










  • @PDeDonato That's obvious: $bmod 10^6-1!:, 10cdot 10^5equiv 1 $ so $10^{-1}equiv 10^5 $
    – Bill Dubuque
    Nov 21 at 22:54












  • I know it, but the answer isn't so clear.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:56


















  • Due to $999999$ isn't a prime number you should say that $10$ has an inverse because it's coprime with $999999$.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:51










  • Then you can't arbitrarly pass from mod $999999$ to mod $n$.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:52










  • He's using the Chinese remainder theorem there. It's clear that $99999^{99} equiv 0 bmod 27$.
    – Qiaochu Yuan
    Nov 21 at 22:53










  • @PDeDonato That's obvious: $bmod 10^6-1!:, 10cdot 10^5equiv 1 $ so $10^{-1}equiv 10^5 $
    – Bill Dubuque
    Nov 21 at 22:54












  • I know it, but the answer isn't so clear.
    – P De Donato
    Nov 21 at 22:56
















Due to $999999$ isn't a prime number you should say that $10$ has an inverse because it's coprime with $999999$.
– P De Donato
Nov 21 at 22:51




Due to $999999$ isn't a prime number you should say that $10$ has an inverse because it's coprime with $999999$.
– P De Donato
Nov 21 at 22:51












Then you can't arbitrarly pass from mod $999999$ to mod $n$.
– P De Donato
Nov 21 at 22:52




Then you can't arbitrarly pass from mod $999999$ to mod $n$.
– P De Donato
Nov 21 at 22:52












He's using the Chinese remainder theorem there. It's clear that $99999^{99} equiv 0 bmod 27$.
– Qiaochu Yuan
Nov 21 at 22:53




He's using the Chinese remainder theorem there. It's clear that $99999^{99} equiv 0 bmod 27$.
– Qiaochu Yuan
Nov 21 at 22:53












@PDeDonato That's obvious: $bmod 10^6-1!:, 10cdot 10^5equiv 1 $ so $10^{-1}equiv 10^5 $
– Bill Dubuque
Nov 21 at 22:54






@PDeDonato That's obvious: $bmod 10^6-1!:, 10cdot 10^5equiv 1 $ so $10^{-1}equiv 10^5 $
– Bill Dubuque
Nov 21 at 22:54














I know it, but the answer isn't so clear.
– P De Donato
Nov 21 at 22:56




I know it, but the answer isn't so clear.
– P De Donato
Nov 21 at 22:56










up vote
2
down vote













We work in the ring $R=Bbb Z/N$, with operation modulo $N=999999=10^6-1$.
(Equalities below address computations in $R$.)
Then
$$
begin{aligned}
99999^{99}
&=(99999-999999)^{99} =(-900000)^{99}=-9^{99}cdot (10^5)^{99}\
&=-3^{198}cdot 10^{495}=-3^{198}cdot {underbrace{(10^6)}_{=1}}^{82}cdot 10^3=-3^{198}cdot 1000 .
end{aligned}
$$

Now the order of (the unit) $3$ in the ring



$Bbb Z/37037
=Bbb Z/(7cdot 11cdot 13cdot 37)
cong
(Bbb Z/7)times
(Bbb Z/11)times
(Bbb Z/13)times
(Bbb Z/37)
$



is $90$, but we need only the simpler information that $3^{180}$ is one modulo $37037$. This is so because $180$ is a multiple of $(7-1)$, $(11-1)$, $(13-1)$, and $(37-1)$. So instead of $3^{198}$ we write the smaller power $3^{18}=387420489$.



We finally search for a number which is $0$ modulo $27$, and also $-387420489000$ modulo $37037$, which is $12468$. After rearrangements modulo $3,9,27$ we get the result
$$123579 .$$





Note: A computer algebra system like sage delivers immediately



sage: Zmod(999999)(99999)^99
123579





share|cite|improve this answer





















  • This is essentially the same as my answer, except I used the mod distributive law form of CRT (which makes it simpler).
    – Bill Dubuque
    Nov 22 at 0:45












  • I committed it now after typing in the train... Yes, same computation.
    – dan_fulea
    Nov 22 at 0:50










  • Thank you very much, it took some time but i eventually understood
    – Girish venkata
    Nov 26 at 18:12















up vote
2
down vote













We work in the ring $R=Bbb Z/N$, with operation modulo $N=999999=10^6-1$.
(Equalities below address computations in $R$.)
Then
$$
begin{aligned}
99999^{99}
&=(99999-999999)^{99} =(-900000)^{99}=-9^{99}cdot (10^5)^{99}\
&=-3^{198}cdot 10^{495}=-3^{198}cdot {underbrace{(10^6)}_{=1}}^{82}cdot 10^3=-3^{198}cdot 1000 .
end{aligned}
$$

Now the order of (the unit) $3$ in the ring



$Bbb Z/37037
=Bbb Z/(7cdot 11cdot 13cdot 37)
cong
(Bbb Z/7)times
(Bbb Z/11)times
(Bbb Z/13)times
(Bbb Z/37)
$



is $90$, but we need only the simpler information that $3^{180}$ is one modulo $37037$. This is so because $180$ is a multiple of $(7-1)$, $(11-1)$, $(13-1)$, and $(37-1)$. So instead of $3^{198}$ we write the smaller power $3^{18}=387420489$.



We finally search for a number which is $0$ modulo $27$, and also $-387420489000$ modulo $37037$, which is $12468$. After rearrangements modulo $3,9,27$ we get the result
$$123579 .$$





Note: A computer algebra system like sage delivers immediately



sage: Zmod(999999)(99999)^99
123579





share|cite|improve this answer





















  • This is essentially the same as my answer, except I used the mod distributive law form of CRT (which makes it simpler).
    – Bill Dubuque
    Nov 22 at 0:45












  • I committed it now after typing in the train... Yes, same computation.
    – dan_fulea
    Nov 22 at 0:50










  • Thank you very much, it took some time but i eventually understood
    – Girish venkata
    Nov 26 at 18:12













up vote
2
down vote










up vote
2
down vote









We work in the ring $R=Bbb Z/N$, with operation modulo $N=999999=10^6-1$.
(Equalities below address computations in $R$.)
Then
$$
begin{aligned}
99999^{99}
&=(99999-999999)^{99} =(-900000)^{99}=-9^{99}cdot (10^5)^{99}\
&=-3^{198}cdot 10^{495}=-3^{198}cdot {underbrace{(10^6)}_{=1}}^{82}cdot 10^3=-3^{198}cdot 1000 .
end{aligned}
$$

Now the order of (the unit) $3$ in the ring



$Bbb Z/37037
=Bbb Z/(7cdot 11cdot 13cdot 37)
cong
(Bbb Z/7)times
(Bbb Z/11)times
(Bbb Z/13)times
(Bbb Z/37)
$



is $90$, but we need only the simpler information that $3^{180}$ is one modulo $37037$. This is so because $180$ is a multiple of $(7-1)$, $(11-1)$, $(13-1)$, and $(37-1)$. So instead of $3^{198}$ we write the smaller power $3^{18}=387420489$.



We finally search for a number which is $0$ modulo $27$, and also $-387420489000$ modulo $37037$, which is $12468$. After rearrangements modulo $3,9,27$ we get the result
$$123579 .$$





Note: A computer algebra system like sage delivers immediately



sage: Zmod(999999)(99999)^99
123579





share|cite|improve this answer












We work in the ring $R=Bbb Z/N$, with operation modulo $N=999999=10^6-1$.
(Equalities below address computations in $R$.)
Then
$$
begin{aligned}
99999^{99}
&=(99999-999999)^{99} =(-900000)^{99}=-9^{99}cdot (10^5)^{99}\
&=-3^{198}cdot 10^{495}=-3^{198}cdot {underbrace{(10^6)}_{=1}}^{82}cdot 10^3=-3^{198}cdot 1000 .
end{aligned}
$$

Now the order of (the unit) $3$ in the ring



$Bbb Z/37037
=Bbb Z/(7cdot 11cdot 13cdot 37)
cong
(Bbb Z/7)times
(Bbb Z/11)times
(Bbb Z/13)times
(Bbb Z/37)
$



is $90$, but we need only the simpler information that $3^{180}$ is one modulo $37037$. This is so because $180$ is a multiple of $(7-1)$, $(11-1)$, $(13-1)$, and $(37-1)$. So instead of $3^{198}$ we write the smaller power $3^{18}=387420489$.



We finally search for a number which is $0$ modulo $27$, and also $-387420489000$ modulo $37037$, which is $12468$. After rearrangements modulo $3,9,27$ we get the result
$$123579 .$$





Note: A computer algebra system like sage delivers immediately



sage: Zmod(999999)(99999)^99
123579






share|cite|improve this answer












share|cite|improve this answer



share|cite|improve this answer










answered Nov 22 at 0:42









dan_fulea

6,1901312




6,1901312












  • This is essentially the same as my answer, except I used the mod distributive law form of CRT (which makes it simpler).
    – Bill Dubuque
    Nov 22 at 0:45












  • I committed it now after typing in the train... Yes, same computation.
    – dan_fulea
    Nov 22 at 0:50










  • Thank you very much, it took some time but i eventually understood
    – Girish venkata
    Nov 26 at 18:12


















  • This is essentially the same as my answer, except I used the mod distributive law form of CRT (which makes it simpler).
    – Bill Dubuque
    Nov 22 at 0:45












  • I committed it now after typing in the train... Yes, same computation.
    – dan_fulea
    Nov 22 at 0:50










  • Thank you very much, it took some time but i eventually understood
    – Girish venkata
    Nov 26 at 18:12
















This is essentially the same as my answer, except I used the mod distributive law form of CRT (which makes it simpler).
– Bill Dubuque
Nov 22 at 0:45






This is essentially the same as my answer, except I used the mod distributive law form of CRT (which makes it simpler).
– Bill Dubuque
Nov 22 at 0:45














I committed it now after typing in the train... Yes, same computation.
– dan_fulea
Nov 22 at 0:50




I committed it now after typing in the train... Yes, same computation.
– dan_fulea
Nov 22 at 0:50












Thank you very much, it took some time but i eventually understood
– Girish venkata
Nov 26 at 18:12




Thank you very much, it took some time but i eventually understood
– Girish venkata
Nov 26 at 18:12


















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